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The task of
‘salvaging’ all this learning from Arabic was encouraged by an
enlightened canon of Toledo, Domingo Gonzalvo. Burckhardt notes how he
encouraged Jewish and Latin scholars in the translation of Arabic texts.
In this way the works of many famous Arab/Muslim Scholars passed into
Christian Europe, like the algebra of al-Khuwarizmi (from whose name
‘logarithm’ is derived). Scholars from across Christendom were heading
for Toledo during this time (1130-70) to participate in this process.
Interestingly,
during this time Roger II of Sicily was also showing considerable interest
in Moorish learning. A map drawn by al-Idrisi for the Norman king reveals
considerable geographical knowledge (for that time). It appears that
whilst still hostile to the Islamic world, Europe took from its scholars
and their expertise. This kind of dual interaction often characterised
relations. Western sentiment towards ‘the other’ in such times is also
interesting, as Blanks and Frasetto explore.
With the rule of
Alfonso X (the wise) came a renewed commitment to translating the Arab
sources. Alfonso “wanted his people to be culturally on a level with the
Moors”. He also encouraged translations in alchemy, astronomy, astrology
and mineralogy.
Today, Toledo is a
small town. Once home to Muslims, Jews and Christians, it is today largely
Christian, yet still proud of its Moorish past. When we visited the
Alcazar was closed for repair work, however a tour of the city is perfect
to get a feel for the town, with its winding streets and Moorish minarets
(now bell towers).
Granada
Granada, surrounded
by the snow capped Sierra Nevada, was long esteemed for its fertile soil
before the Muslims landed in 711, bringing with them sugarcane, olives,
almonds, aubergines and saffron. Tradition has it that there was tension
between the old Jewish settlement of Garnatha and local Christians. So
when the Muslims first landed the Jews helped them to take Granada. It
was, however, a less significant city (compared with Cordoba, the Roman
provincial capital and later the seat of the Spanish Caliphate) until it
became the capital of the Nasrid kingdom established in 1238 by the astute
Nasrid prince Muhammad. This, at a time when Muslim rule was coming to an
end elsewhere on the peninsula. The Kingdom of Granada survived a further
250 years by its political manoeuvres and precarious status as a vassal of
Castile.
Its fall in 1492
marked the end of the Christian ‘reconquista’ and Church and State
grew rich, for a time, on the confiscated property as they once did on
tribute paid. However, with the expulsion of the Jews and later the
Muslims (preceded by persecution and forced conversions) economic decline
followed in Granada, as elsewhere.
Our visit to the
Albaicìn (old Moorish quarter) was extremely rewarding. This area still
retains its Moorish character. The winding narrow streets (as in Toledo)
characterise this once residential area with some 30 mosques and 30
fountains. The mosques have long been destroyed or converted, however, the
fountains once used by the faithful for ritual ablutions before prayer can
still be seen as well as the minarets (today bell towers).
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 There
is, however, one minaret in the Albaicìn that is in use today. It is
attached to a new mosque, built (notably) by the 500 strong Muslim
population that has grown in Granada, mostly former Basque Roman Catholics
who have converted in the last 30 years. My group was fortunate enough to
get a preview of the building before its official opening. (Left. Prayer
niche of the new mosque. Wahid Rahman.) The Mosque is a must visit and its
garden offers fantastic panoramic views of the city and the Alhambra. The
decoration of the Mosque is on similar lines as the Great Mosque of
Cordoba. As well as a spiritual space, it is hoped the Mosque will
contribute to good interfaith understanding and operate as a centre of
learning.
“Frequent wars on
the borders, and internal disturbances did not prevent the people of
Granada from intellectual pursuits … Education was not a means of
placement against jobs, but a dedication to self-enlightenment and service
to others.”
Opposite the Capilla
Real in the city is the Palacio Madraza . It was the former Dar al-ilm
(Islamic college) of Granada. Today it is adjoined to the City’s
university, again devoted to learning, and it retains the Mihrab (prayer
niche) and prayer hall at the end of its courtyard. A must see because of
its unimaginable beauty. One stumbles upon it as if by accident, like a
piece of the Alhambra in a back room.
The Corral del Carbón
is worthy of mention. This 14th Century merchants lodge was built to house
travellers and their horses and offers us a glimpse into the simple and
everyday architecture that made Granada function as a centre of East meets
West trade. Rahman comments, “[m]erchants from Syria, Egypt, Africa,
Italy and Armenia jostled in the markets of the kingdom making it the
common country of all the nations”. Today it houses the tourist office.
The Plaza Nueva is
not really worth visiting, other than to place it in the history of the
city. It was built post reconquista, as the gathering place for Christian
demonstrations. It was here that 80,000 Arabic books of a former Muslim
University were burnt.
(Left. Relief work from the walls of the Alhambra. Note
‘Wa la ghaliba illalah’ repeated thrice above a doorway. Wahid Rahman.)
The Alhambra
The Alhambra (Ar. Al
Qal’a al-Hamra, meaning the Red Fort) is situated on an outcrop of the
Sierra Nevada above the city and dates from the 11th Century. It was the
first Nasrid King who rebuilt its Alcazar (Ar. al-qasr, meaning palace),
adding walls, towers and engineered running water from the Darro River. It
served as a Government citadel with its own mansions, houses, schools,
baths, mosques and gardens. Burckhardt describes how this fortress was a
metaphor for the Nasrid Kingdom, protected as it was by mountains and
forts.
“…one enters
various inner courtyards around which the rooms are grouped almost
haphazardly, accessible through tucked-away passages, so that one can
never guess what lies hidden on the other side of the walls.”
This is part of the
delight of the Alhambra, unlike other Royal residences in Europe there is
no façade, no main axis around which buildings relate “no suite of
apartments to pass through…working to a climax”. However, each
individual building has its own order, planned around an internal
courtyard or garden, like a “Moorish dwelling house”.
 Our
tour began in Generalife (Ar. Janat al-Arif meaning the Garden of the
Architect), a beautiful series of terraced gardens fed by an irrigation
system that is little different to that in Moorish times, whereby water
flows from higher terraces to lower ones.
7. The Mexuar
(Council hall)
We then entered into the Mexuar, once described by the court poet and
Vizier ibn Zamrak as a “haven of counsel, mercy and favour”. It was
used for judicial pleas and petitions from the people to the Sultan. At
its far end is a prayer niche where all would have retired to observe
their daily prayers at the appointed times. Few would have ventured beyond
this room.
 8.
This leads to the Seralla, built by Yusuf I (right). Then, to the Patio de
los Arrayanes (10) a beautiful patio with a large pool flanked by myrtle
bushes.
12. This leads to
The Salòn de Embajadores (Hall of Ambassadors),
Its chamber forms a perfect square. Here ambassadors would have been
received and its relation to the Patio de los Arrayanes means it can only
be accessed from the sides. Thus, “a ruler had to be approached
unobtrusively”. The dome above has rigid geometric carpentry of knots
and is said to symbolise the seven heavens. On it the arms of Aragon and
Castile were imposed post reconquista.
Repeated throughout
the Alhambra is the Arabic ‘wa la ghaliba illalah’, meaning ‘There
is no victor besides God’ i.e. God (Allah) dominates all. This serves to
remind the ruler and the people of their own dependence on God and of his
complete independence. The arabesques, geometric patterns and stalactite
(or honeycomb) vaulting provide “unending melody and divine
mathematics”. On the geometry of the Alhambra Burckhardt comments:
“They are the
purest simile for the manifestation of the divine reality (al-hakika),
which is the centre throughout, in each creature, and in each cosmos,
without any being or any thing being able to claim to being its sole
reflection, creating an unending reflection of centres in each other.”
At the southern end of the Patio de los Arrayanes once stood some
apartments, however they were destroyed to make way for the Palace of
Carlos V (left). The palace was never finished and is in stark contrast to
the rest of the Alhambra. It draws attention to its weight, size and bulk,
whereas the architecture of the Alhambra does none of these.
The Harem (20) was
next on our tour. These were the private living quarters of the Sultan,
where the Patio de los Leones can be found (a world famous site). The poem
on the fountain above the lions is said to read how much more fierce they
would look, were it not for their respect for the sultan restraining them!
Geometric designs,
arabesques and stalactite vaulting make the subsequent apartments appear
serene and light. The domes of rooms like the Sala de Los Abencerrajes
(23) with a 16 sided honeycomb dome, use light (that represents unity) to
create grades of shadow and colour. Burckhardt adds this use of light
makes “the simple stucco more precious than onyx or jade”.
Seville
Seville,
on the bank of the Guadalquivir, is today Andalusia’s official capital,
taken by Muslims in 712 it was also briefly the capital of Muslim Spain.
It is home to the famous La Giralda tower , formerly the minaret of the
Great Mosque. A 15th Century gothic Cathedral (the largest of its kind in
the world) was built on top of the Mosque post reconquista.
La Giralda is named
after a 16th Century weather vane on its summit and is a famous landmark
throughout Spain. Though, I could not help but feel it was somewhat
confusing, contradictory and cluttered with all its Renaissance additions.
The original geometric trellis work and intricate arches are proportioned
outstandingly. They use light and shades to alternate the appearance of
the tower. However, this effect is overpowered by the huge Renaissance
belfry that demands attention, distracting the eye away from the subtle
trellis work. Perhaps this was the intention of a later architect. The
original architect was Ahmad ibn Baso, who is thought to be responsible
for similar towers in Marrakech and Rabat. This highlights the important
influence of the Spanish Muslims beyond the Iberian Peninsula.
The Minaret took ibn
Baso twelve years to build and reportedly has 35 gentle slopes leading to
the top. Unfortunately, I did not get a chance to climb up. As well as
calling Muslims to prayer the tower was also used as an observatory. The
mosque was used post conquest as a church between 1248 and 1402, till it
was decided the grand mosque be demolished and a huge gothic cathedral be
built on top.
Other places visited
include the Alcazar, home to rulers of Seville since Roman times and with
various rooms built by Granadan craftsmen on the order of Pedro the Cruel.
In the 11th and 12th Century the Almohads built a citadel here, parts of
this survive. The Alcazar is an interesting mix of the Alhambra,
juxtaposed with gothic design. A popular proverb at the time of the
Muslims was that; “In Seville one could even buy a bird’s milk”,
thus we get the idea that this city was another key centre of trade,
stocked with goods from all over the known world.
Medina al-Zahra
The ruined city lies
some 7km West of Cordoba and was in use for less than 100 years as an
administrative/royal residence, rediscovered by excavations in 1911. It
was built on the orders of Abd ar-Rahman III (c.936-40) and named after
his favourite wife Zahra (Ar. The Radiant/Flower). It was a symbol of
the power of the Caliphate in Spain.
The actual complex
had three terraces situated above the Guadalquivir valley and it is
reported to have contained a palace, a zoo, an aviary, four huge fish
ponds, 400 houses, baths, a weapons factories, 2 barracks, markets,
workshops and mosques. The tourist leaflet admits “what has been
excavated up till now is only a tenth part of the total area”.
The whole complex
had running water and sewage facilities. It had an infrastructure
independent of Cordoba and evident by “remains of roadways, bridges,
aqueducts, and quarries in the surrounding area.”
The palace complex
had rooms decked in the finest materials, one room had crystals that
created a rainbow effect as light came into the room. In another room
the caliph had a bowl of Mercury that would be rocked by a slave sending
sun beams flashing around the room, alarming guests and amusing the
Caliph. Zahra was a place of luxury and opulence. It covered almost
2000m by 900m and took 10,000 workers and 15,000 mules and camels to
build.
The fall of Zahra
is equally interesting. After Abd ar-Rahman III came al-Hakam II who
distanced himself from Cordoba, residing at Zahra and delegating to his
vizier ibn Abi Amir (who later usurped power as al-Mansur). When Hisham
II succeeded his father al-Hakam II he was only a small boy and thus al-Mansur
(formerly the vizier) effectively became the ruler. When al-Mansur died,
he was succeeded by his first son and then his second son. After this
episode, civil war erupted and the Caliphate fell leaving in its place
several petty kingdoms. It was around this time Zahra was abandoned and
over subsequent centuries it would be plundered for its precious stones.
Parts were also taken for a 15th Century monastery of San Jerómino that
sits directly above the ruins and is today a private residence.
Cordoba
 The
interior of the Great Mosque of Cordoba. (Right) Wahid Rahman. Note:
“The groined vaults between the arcades were a later addition and
should be disregarded, as they divide the hall up into aisles, giving it
a directional bias; originally the ceiling was flat above the painted
beams, and echoed the level plane of the floor strewn with mats.”
Once the largest city in Western Europe (and the first to have street
lighting), Cordoba stands upstream from Seville on the Guadalquivir.
Visiting Cordoba was the high point in my journey owing to its
historical repute as a centre of learning, far excelling any other city
of the time, a refuge for scholars of different faiths and cultures.
Pope Sylvester II is reported to have studied arithmetic and the making
of astrolabes at Cordoba in his youth. Rahman narrates how, according to
this story, when he returned from his sojourn rumour spread that during
his stay with the ‘infidel’ he had dabbled in necromancy. Such was
popular ignorance.
During the reign
of Abd ar-Rahman III one also notes many leading Jews and Christians in
academia and high political office. Rahman celebrates Hasdai ibn Shaprut
as one such individual at 164. Ibn Shaprut was the
physician-cum-diplomat who negotiated a treaty with Queen Toda of
Navarre. Rahman reports his great contributions to Hebrew studies and
efforts to improve the lot of Jews beyond Spain. Once, he boldly
approached Byzantine Rome to stop persecuting Jews. Several Christians
also served as diplomats including Hisham ibn Hudhail, Asbagh ibn
Abdullah and Recemudo Rabi ibn Zaid.
There remains
little of Cordoba’s golden past, “the eighty thousand shops and
workshops…the public baths and the inns where merchants and their
pack-animals used to rest. The schools, where even the children of the
poor received tutoring, and the many bookshops have all disappeared.”
Though, the locals do revive the Moorish tradition of keeping patios of
flowers, plants, tiles and water features. This preoccupation dates from
Muslim times.
On the banks of the Guadalquivir one can still note the Albolafia
(Moorish water wheels) once used to grind flour. Rahman notes how
Cordoba had an underground sewage system; centuries before other cities
‘woke up’ to the idea. The Muslims had developed the management of
water, as a precious resource in the fields as well as the metropolis.
The Torre de la
Calahorra, today, hosts an interactive tour of Spanish Muslim history
and displays some interesting artefacts, including an astrolabe and a
set of surgical tools from the Muslim era. It is worth a visit if only
for one thing…a scaled down model of the original Mezquita, without
the various changes. It really allows you to appreciate how the original
building would have appeared and you can peek into the Mosque with a
clear view to the Mihrab (prayer niche). Once you reach the top of the
tower there is also a superb view of the city of Cordoba over the
Guadalquivir.
Of the many
hundreds of mosques that once stood in Cordoba, the only one that
remains is the Great Mosque (Sp. La Mezquita or Ar. Masjid). It is by
far the most famous building in Cordoba. One enters it through the Patio
de los Naranjos (patio of orange trees). Once, this area was used for
ritual ablutions by worshippers before entering the mosque. Originally
all 19 naves of the mosque, which open out onto the patio, would have
been opened on Fridays, allowing great shafts of light into the building
and giving the columns the deceptive air of palm trees, a “grove” of
pillars supporting the ceiling. Such an effect is lost today as only one
door is opened, the rest are sealed and the light is severely limited.
Visitors should note the Cathedral authorities do not allow any prayer
other than Catholic prayer.
 “Because
the lower horseshoe arch springs from a narrower span than the upper
semi-circular one, the whole structure seems to expand and extend
outwards…a room that appears to fan outwards from many centres, and is
at once motionless and mobile.”
The ingenious
design of the original architect, Sidi ben Ayub, is unprecedented and
more remarkable when we consider the practical problems he faced. The
dilemma of a collection of old columns (some from the old Cathedral
bought by the Muslims, others from old Roman buildings, many more
shipped into Cordoba) was that some were too short and others too tall.
Thus he sunk the taller ones deeper into the ground and the short ones
got a second row of square columns on the apex, as a base for the
semi-circular arches above. Extra horseshoe arches per column added
strength and stability (this had never been done before).
The alternating
red and white brickwork gives the whole building that unique aesthetic
feel. There is also no masonry between the two levels of arches (as in
the mosque of Damascus) and thus the structure is in defiance of the
fact that the upper arches weigh more than the lower ones and rest on
slender columns, all contrary to the “classical European conception of
architecture” as Burckhardt stresses. If a Roman aqueduct was
inspiration for part of the design, then the maths and proportions here
are in defiance of Roman design, where the upper arches are always
lighter than the lower ones and the buildings support is proportionate
to its weight. All this makes the building both aesthetically pleasing
and architecturally unique. The mosque is for me the physical embodiment
of how Islamic Spain pushed forward the boundaries of human endeavour,
with an ever present spiritual dimension.
The first section
of the mosque was completed within one year (785-6). It was initiated by
Abd ar-Rahman I and completed by his son Hisham I, who added a minaret,
basins for ablution and a gallery for women. The Mihrab was however
moved with each successive extension, undertaken because of the growing
Muslim population of Cordoba. The Mihrab of today dates from the reign
of al-Hakam II and its dome was the product of Moorish artisans trained
in the techniques of Byzantine mosaic, adapting this “wholly to the
geometric style of Moorish-Islamic art”. The copper red and gold,
contrast royal blue brilliantly. The dome is an octagonal in a square
space, quite unlike the Gothic response to the task of building domes in
square spaces.
The
niche indicating Makka has a seven sided chamber that would amplify the
prayer. It has a horseshoe arch that radiates “like the sun or moon
gradually rising over the edge of the horizon”. Around it (on the
vertex in Kufic text) is inscribed the 23rd verse of Surah Al-Hashr of
the Qur’an, still discernable today:
“Allah
is He, than Whom there is no other god –
The Sovereign, the Holy One,
The source of Peace (and Perfection),
The Guardian of Faith, The Preserver of Safety,
The Exalted in Might, The Irresistible, the Supreme:
Glory to Allah (High is He)
Above the partners they attribute to Him.”
However, post-reconquista the Mosque first had chapels installed and then in
1523, in the face of much local resistance, Carlos V sanctioned a
partial demolition and the construction of a Renaissance / Baroque
chapel in the centre of the Mosque, described by Burckhardt as an
“arbitrarily placed” “black spider”. This ended three centuries
of restraint on the part of the Christians who till that point had
happily worshiped in the original Mosque. The original timber-coffered
ceiling was also replaced in the 18th Century with Baroque copulas,
which confuses the aesthetics of the space. The Cathedral today uses up
less than 20% of the floor space, leaving the rest of this ‘grove’
free for tourists.
 Carlos V is later reported
to have rebuked the Chapter on seeing the Cathedral:
“You have
built what you and others might have built anywhere, but you have
destroyed something that was unique in the world”.
Anyone who visits
the Mosque today will understand this statement.
Apart from being a
place of prayer and contemplation in the centre of Cordoba, the mosque
also doubled as a place of learning and the seat of justice. Around its
columns lectures would be delivered by eminent theologians and teachers
from across the Muslim world, where students and the general public
could listen to lectures at no cost.
In another part of
the building the supreme judge of Cordoba would hear the case of
litigants seeking redress for some injustice. This judge would be second
only to the Prime Minister (standing between the people and the Caliph,
independent of both) yet he would receive litigants “in as homely
fashion as if he were sitting in a Bedouin tent”, without pomp or
ceremony. Burckhardt also adds the Judges of Cordoba were renowned for
the “independence and justice of their rulings.”
When the time for
prayer came all other pre-occupations were put to one side as the Great
Mosque greeted worshippers spilling in from the streets and markets
outside:
“The communal
prayers were recited five times a day, as they are to this day in
Islamic [and even non Islamic] countries … This rhythmic repetition of
the same ritual, with its eternal, unchanging meaning, implanted an
indelible seal on the entire way of life, and despite the disputes and
troubles that divided Islamic Spain, the unity of this seal was never
broken.”
Bibliography
Archaeological
site Madinat al-Zahra, tourist information, Junta de Andalucia, Depósito
Legal: SE-2605/2000
BBC News article
(10/07/03) and The Times (08/07/03), on the new Granada Mosque.
Blanks, D.,
Frasetto, M., Western views of Islam in Medieval and Early Modern
Europe, Macmillan, 1999.
Burckhardt, T.,
Moorish Culture in Spain, (translated by Alisa Jaffa) George Allen &
Unwin Ltd., 1972.
Garvey, G., and
Ellingham, M., Andalucia: The Rough Guide, The Rough Guides, 1997.
Lane-Poole, S.,
The Moors in Spain, T. Fisher Unwin, London, 1895.
Rahman, S. A., The
Story of Islamic Spain, Goodword Books (India), 2001.
The Meaning of the
Holy Qur’an, translated by Yusuf Ali, A., 10th ed. Reprint, Amana
publications, Maryland (USA), 2001.
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